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//-->8AlchemyintheAncientWorld:FromSciencetoMagicPAULT.KEYSER"Alchemy"theanglicisedByzantineisnamegiventowhatitspractitionersreferredtoas"theArt"(xexvii)or"Knowledge"(eTiiaxTi^Ti),oftencharacterisedasdivine(Geia),sacred(lepd) ormystic(^\)aTiKT|).^Whilethistechneunderwentmanychangesinthecourseofitslifeofovertwothousandyears(andtherearetracesofiteveninmodemtimes,asIwilldiscuss),arecognisablecommondenominatorinallthewritingsisthesearchforamethodoftransformingbasemetals(copper,iron,lead,tin)intonoble(electrum,goldorsilver). ^Thereisunfortunatelynomodemcriticaleditionofanyofthesewritings(theextanteditionsbeingoldoruncriticalorboth),thoughtheBudehasbeguntheprocess.^InthisessayIsketchthebackgroundandoriginsoftheancientalchemy,aswellasitslatertransmutationintoamysticalartofpersonaltransformation.FinallyItumtothemodemperiodandbrieflyexaminetheinfluenceofthismysticaltraditioninourownworld-picture.BackgroundIbeginwiththefirstevidenceofhumanchemicaltechnology,whichtakesusback,wellbeforetheancientperiodofmerely2,000yearsago,tothePalaeolithicfire.'*MiddlePleistoceneof200,000yearsagothisfirstcontrolledTheachievementofandthemasteryofchemicalreactionmarksa—*W.Gundel."Alchemic."RACI(1950)239-60.esp.240^1;E.O.vonLippmann.EntstehungandAusbreitungderAlchemic(Berlin1919)1293-314;E.Riess."Alchemie."REI(1894)1338-55.esp.1338-39.^SeeforexampleZosimus3.11=M.P.E.Berthelot.Collectiondesanciensalchimistesgrecs(=CAAG)U(ParisGreekAlchemy."JHS50(previousnote)249-50.editionofthe'1888)Greek.148-50French;F. S.Taylor."ASurveyof(1930)109-39.esp.127;Riess(previousnote)1351-52;Gundel145^8ForthejudgementontheeditionsseeGundel(above,note1)239;theBudebeginswithanStockholmand LeidenpapyribyRobertHaUeux:LesalchimistesgrecsI(Paris1981);seeH. D.Saffrey(therein)xiv-xvfortheirplans.*S.R.James."Hominid UseofFireintheLowerandMiddlePleistocene:AReviewoftheEvidence."CurrentAnthropology30(1989)1-26;M.Barbetti."TracesofFireintheArchaeologicalRecord,BeforeOneMillionYearsAgo?,"JHumEvol15(1986)771-81;C.K.354IllinoisClassicalStudies,XV.2whichremainedpartmillenniumB.C.asrevealedinthePrometheusMythoftheGreeks(HesiodandAeschylus)andthefire-worshipofthePersians.^Firewasandstillisusedinreligiousandmagicalrites;itisalsothesourceofthesecondmajoradvanceinchemicaltechnology:theproductionofanartificialsubstance.Nodoubt(thoughwelackpositiveprooOfirewasusedforcookingfoodandhardeningwoodthemselvesimportantandmysteriousprocesses(whyafterallshoulddestructiveheatmakethingsharderandmoredurable?).But26,000yearsago(onecycleoftheprecessionoftheequinoxes),southofwhatisnowBrnoinCzechoslovakiaourancestorsfirstproducedanewmaterialhavingpropertiesentirelyImeanbakedclay.^Butthisnewdissimilartothoseoftheparentmaterialmaterialwasnottobeusedforpotteryuntila periodmorethantwiceaslongasallofrecordedhistoryhadpassedthepeopleatDolniVestoniceseemtohavebeenchieflyinterestedincausingtheirmoldedanimalfigurinestoexplodeonfiring.Thisisrelativelyeasytoaccomplishwith asufficientlywet andthickclaybody(thoughharderwithloess,therawpottersmustbetaught(asIknowbyexperience)tomaterialatDolni)buildorthrowthinly.Theseexplosionswereprobablyritualistic(thearchaeologistsofteninterprettheunknownasthesacred:omneignotumprosacro)Iamremindedofthefire-crackedChineseoraclebones.Firehardenedclay,andthismiraclematerialcametobemorecommonthanstone,intheformofpotteryvessels(theoriginalformofwhichwasprobablyclay-linedbaskets).AftertheAgriculturalRevolutionfirewasusednotonlytocookbuttobakePThisagainmarksadecisivestepthatfirehardenedandpreservedwood,bone,clayandfoodhadlongbeenknown.Thenewmagicwasleaventheinvisibleyeastpreservedbybakersinsourdough(asfirewasinfennel-stalks)whichtransformedclay-likedoughAgainthesymbolismwaspowerfulenoughafterintoraisedbread.millenniatolodgeatthecoreofChristianity.DoubtlessNeanderthalslikejackdawscollectedshinyrocks.Amongthesewerepyrites,themostvaluable,thefire-stone,thefire-starter,aswellasbitsofcopperandgold ofnoapparentvalue(wehavecomesofarthatradicalbreakwithpriortechnology,thesignificanceofofhumanmemorydowntothefirst————————pyritesisnowcalled"fool'sgold").*AtsomepointitwasdiscoveredthatBrainandA.Sillen,"EvidencefromtheSwartkransCavefortheEarliestUseofFire,"Nature336(1988)464-66.IamindebtedtoStanAmbrose(UniversityofIllinois,Anthropology)forthesereferences.5Cp.R.J.Forbes.StudiesinAncientTechnology(=SAT) VI(Leiden1966)1-13.atKhmaandJ.Svoboda,"TheOriginsofCeramicTechnologyDohiiV&tonice,Czechoslovakia,"Science246(1989)1002-08.^Cp.Forbes,SATVI(1966)58-67;W.Krenkel,"VomKomzumBrot,"DasAltertumU^ P.B.Vandiver,O.Soffer,B.8(1965)209-23.Forbes,SATVm(1971)8-28,157andIX(1972)29-34.PaulT.Keysetthelatterstones355weresoftenoughthattheycouldstifforbone,laterstillthattheycouldlikebecarvedliketoughwooddoughor claywithdifficultybepoundedintoshapes.Thishammeringhardensthecopper.Thethoughtmusthavesoonoccurredperhapsthisstuffcouldbefurtherhardenedlikeandthefailurewasasourceofclay,wood, boneinthefire?ItwastriedCopperdoesnot,likeclayorbone,fractureifheatedandquenched,wonder.nordoesitharden^butratheritbecomessofter!Thismadeiteasiertohammer.TheseearlydiscoveriesseemtohaveoccurredinArmeniaor———NorthIran,about seventhousandyearsago.'copperfindsinMesopotamiaareatTepeGawra(4000-3500B.C.)asitetowhichIwillreferagain.^^Justabitlaterwehavetheearliestdatedsmeltedcopper(andcopperslag)fromTepeYahyainIran(3800B.C.),andataboutthesametimethereisevidenceofcoppersmeltinginEgypt."Smeltingwasprobablydiscoveredaccidentallyinapotterykilngreenmalachitewas(kilnsarefirstrecordedbyarchaeologistsatthistime)reducedtoredcopper.^^Thiswasamagicaltransformation,likethefiringofclayandthebaldngofbread,andrepresentsthefirstartificialproductionorimitationofanaturalsubstancespecificallytheproductionofavaluablemetalfromsomethingtowhichthemetalhasnoresemblanceorknownTheearliest———connection.NearUroftheChaldeesatAl'Ubaidhavebeenfoundtheearliestexamples(fromca.3500-3200B.C.)ofthedeliberateproductionoftin-bronze.^^Itisnotclearjusthowthiswasdone,butfromanalchemicalpointofviewthemostsignificantfactisthatitwas.ThiswasprobablyaSumeriandiscovery,asonlytheirlanguagedistinguishesclearlybetweencopperandbronze:copperiswuduandbronzezabar}^BydoingsomethingtoaredmetaltheSumeriansproduceda yellowmetal(whichwasmoreA.Lucas,AncientEgyptianMaterialsandIndustries^,ed.J.R.Harris(London1962)199-SAT(1971)20andIX(1972)29-34onannealingofcopper. R.F.(1971)17-25onTylecote.AHistoryofMetallurgy(London1976)1andForbes.SAT'217andForbes.VmVmlocale.^°Tylecote(previous^^note)9.Tylecote(above,note9)5-9;seeR.F.TylecoteandH.McKerreU."ExaminationofCopperAlloy ToolsfromTalYYahya.Iran."BullHistMetallGroup5(1971)37-38.^^Forbes.SAT(1971)28;Tylecote(above,note9)5-6;H.H.Coghlan."SomeExperimentsontheOriginofEarlyCopper."Man:AMonthlyRecordofAnthropologicalVmScience39(1939)106-08;idem."PrehistoricCopperandSomeExperimentsinSmelting."TransNewcomenSoc20(1939/40)49-65;A.Lucas."TheOriginofEarlyCopper."JEA31(1945)96-97;H.H. Coghlan.NotesonthePrehistoricMetallurgyofCopperandBronzeintheOldWorld,PittRiversMuseum.U.ofOxford.OccasionalPapersonTechnology4(OxfordinJr.."NativeCopperandtheBegiimingof Smelting:ChemicalStudies."EarlyMetallurgyinCyprus4000-500B.C.,ed.J.D.Muhlyetal.(Nicosia1982)33-38.^3Tylecote(above,note9)9.^'*Forbes.SATDC(1972)89.115—cp.theEgyptianwords,p.55;seealsoM.P.E.Berthelot,"Surlecuiviedesanciens."Annatesdechinueetdephysique(6)12(1887)141-43.1951);GeorgeRapp.356easilycastIllinoisClassicalStudies,XV.2Thefurthersuccessesofandcouldbemadefarharder).^^prehistoricmetallurgycannotdetainushere,^^thoughlead,'*^tin,^^antimony^'andiron^^wereextractedandbrasswasinvented.^^TwoprocessesforproducinggoldandsilverImustmention.SilverwasrarerthangoldinEgypt;byabout2000B.C.itwasbeingproducedintheNearEastfromargentiferousgalenabycupellationthatisthegalenawasroastedtoproducelead,whichwasoxidisedinafiredclaycrucibleleavingonlythesilver.22BythefifthcenturyB.C.theEgyptianshadlearnedthelong-knowncementationprocessbywhichimpuregoldorelectrumisheatedwithclay,sandandsaltinaclosedvesseltoproducerefinedorpurifiedgold.Bothprocessesmusthaveseemedmagicalandarbitrary.^^theconnectiontoIhavediscussedprehistoricandearlymetallurgyalchemyisclear.NowImustmakeadetourintoEgyptianandSumerianchemistryalsoconnectedwithalchemytomentiontwootherimportantartificialsubstances:glassandbeer.Thefirstartificialstonewasfired clay.TheEgyptianswereusingagypsummortar(similartoourcementorconcrete)frompredynastictimes,anditistheywhoinventedfaience(afiredground-quartzpaste).^Wedonot————^^J.T.T.Read,"MetallurgicalFallaciesinArchaeologicalliterature."AM38(1934)382-89;R.Partington,"TheDiscoveryofBronze,"Scientia60(1936)197-204.^^(above,note9)195-257;Forbes.inthe'^A.Neuburger,TechnicalArtsandSciencesoftheAncients(London1930)8-27;LucasSATX(1972)152-66;J.F.Healy.MiningandMetallurgyGreekandRomanWorld(London1978).Leadwassmeltedfromgalena:seeForbes.SAT"(1971)196-266.i«Tylecote(above,note9)14-29 andFoibes.5/17DC(1972)134-52.166ff.discusstin;W.Lamb,ExcavationsatThermi(Cambridge1936)171-73.215.PI.XXVrecordsanEBApureVm101-34.104;Diosc.HN5.84(99);M.P. E.Berthelot."MetauxminerauxprovenantdeI'antiqueChaldee;surlesoriginesdeI'etaindanslemondeancien."Comptesrenduesdel'AcadenuedesSciences104(1887)265-71and"SurquelquesmetauxetminerauxptovenantdeI'antiqueChaldee."Annalesdechimieetdephysique(6)12(1887)129-40.esp.134-36recordstheantimonybowlfromTello;forotherantimonyobjectssee:L.Cambi,"SulmetallodeimonilidelletombedelsepolcretodiPonteS.Pietro,"Rend.1st.Lombardo.Sci.,Classesci.matem.enatur.92A.pL2(1958)167-72"neolithic"(2500-2000B.C.)antimonybeads;LCambiandF.Cremascoli."SulmeullodeibottomdellatombapreistoricadiMonteBradooipressoVolterra."ibid.91,pt.2(1957)371-77antimonybuttonsof"bronzeage";R.Virchow,"NeueErwerbungenausTranskaukasien,insbesondereeineFenterumeundSchmiicksachenausAntimon,"Verh.Berl.Gesell.Anthropol.Ethnol.Urgesch.(1884)125-31.^OnironseeRead(above,note15);Tylecote(above,note9)andForbes,SATJX(1972)187-305.21SeeE.R.Caley."Orichalcum andRelatedAlloys,"ANSNNM151(1964).Zincitself(alloyedwithcoppertomakebrass)wasapparentlyalsoknown:Str.13.1.56(610)callsit\|/e\)6dpyupo<;andcp.M.Famsworth,C.S.SmithandJ.L.Rodda,"MetallographicExaminationof aSampleofMetallic2incfromAncientAthens,"HesperiaSuppl.8(1949)126-29,PI.XVI.ettinbracelet(object30.24).1'Cp.Pliny.33.33.MM2223Tylecote(above,note9)38;Forbes,5^7(1971)196-266.Foibes,SATVffl(1971)180-81;Lucas(above,note9)224-35.Vm2*Lucas(above,note9)74-79mortar,156-78faience.PaulT.Keyser357knowwhereorwhenglasswasfirstmade,butithasbeenfoundinEgyptfrom2500B.C.,inMesopotamiaabitlater,usuallyintheformofbeads.^PopularinEgyptprimarilyduringtheNewKingdom,glasslongremainedainfacttheoldestextantglassrecipe,fixtureofMesopotamiantechnologyfromtheseventeenthcenturyB.C.,isaSumerian-BabyIoniancuneiformtablet.2^Thewriter"anticipates"thedeliberateobscurityoflateralchemical—texts,buttherecipeisrecognizablythatforagreenglass.Laterseventh-centuryB.C.recipesproducesodaglassandcrownglassequivalenttoourmodernglassesbuttherecipesincludethebuildingofhumanembryosintothefurnacewalls.OneoftheEgyptianrecipesfounditswayintothe—Greco-Romantraditionascaerulium:sand,greenmalachite,chalkandsaltwerefusedatjusttherighttemperaturetoproduceasky-blueglassystone^^—withoutanyembryos.—^probablygoesbacktoandoccursspontaneouslyduetothepresenceoftheyeastofthemoldfamilyfoundonthefruitskins.^*ThismiracletoowaslongrememberedassuchtheGreeksworshippedDionysusasthebringerofwine,wineissymbolicoftheblessingsofGodintheHebrewScripturesandwineis,withbread,oneofthesacredsubstancesoftheChristianreligion.TheconnectionofwinespecificallywithalchemyIwilladdresstheGreekshortly.TheinventionofbeerisoftencreditedtotheEgyptianshistorianDiodorusSiculus(1.20.4)creditsittothegodOsiris.ThefruitjuicesThefermentationofsweet—wine—thePalaeolithic—processofmalting(soakinggraininwatertillitbeginstosprout)generatesthewholeprocessisfarmorethesugarnecessaryforfermentation—complexthantheproductionofwine.^'Aneo-Babyloniantabletofthefifth-fourthcenturyB.C.preservestheSumerianbeerrecipe:^^weevenknowhowtheSumeriansandEgyptiansdrankitthroughstraws(Fig.1).ThisbeerprocessisalsorecordedforusinGreekwritingsinthe——^Lucas(above,note9)179-84;J.R.Partington,TheOriginsandDevelopmentofAppliedChemistry(London1935;repr.NewYork1975)119-32;Neuburger(above,note16)152-64;A. C.Kisa,DasGlasimAltertume,3vols.(Leipzig1908);M.L.Trowbridge,PhilologicalStudiesinAncientGlass,U.ofIllinoisStudiesinLanguageandLiterature13.3-4(1928)231-436.C.J.GaddandR.C.Thompson,"AMiddle-BabylonianChemicalText,"Iraq 3(1936)87-96;R.C.Thompson,"AssyrianChemistry,"Ambix2(1938)3-16;idem. DictionaryofAssyrianChemistryandGeology(Oxford1936)xxi-xxxvi,194-97.^PlinyHN33.57.161-64;Vitr.7.11.1;Theophr.DeLap.70,98-100;Diosc.5.91(1965)224-25.(106);seePartington(above,note25)117-19;Forbes,5/17"^Forbes,SAT(1965)62-64. 72-74;Neuburger(above,note16)105-09;Lucas(above,^mmMMnote9)16-24.Forbes,SAT^III(1965)65-70;J.P.Arnold,OriginandHistoryofBeerandBrewing(Chicago1911)41-184.^L.F.HartmannandA.L.Oppenheim."OnBeerandBrewingTechniquesinAncientMesopoUmia,"JAOSSuppl.10(1950).Thefiguresofthebeer-drinkersaredrawnfromtheirPlatesIand11.
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Dobry przykład - połowa kazania. Adalberg
I ty, Brutusie, przeciwko mnie?! (Et tu, Brute, contra me?! ) Cezar (Caius Iulius Caesar, ok. 101 - 44 p. n. e)
Do polowania na pchły i męża nie trzeba mieć karty myśliwskiej. Zygmunt Fijas
W ciepłym klimacie najłatwiej wyrastają zimni dranie.
Gdybym tylko wiedział, powinienem był zostać zegarmistrzem. - Albert Einstein (1879-1955) komentując swoją rolę w skonstruowaniu bomby atomowej
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